1. Identification and Names Anemurium, a commercial port of southern Asia Minor, is the largest of all small cities built along the ancient, coastal road in western Cilicia, known as Cilicia Trachea.1 It is built 6 km far from the modern city of Eski-Αnamur, 18 km from Nagidus and 105 km from Seleuceia, to the east. It occupies the northeastern part of Cape Αnamur, which, according to an opinion, was the western border between Cilicia and Pamphylia.2 The cape is the southernmost end of Turkey and the nearest point of the Asia Minor coast to Cyprus (65 km).3 Information about the geographical position of Anemurium is also provided by ancient sources. Strabo4 reports that the city is within 300 stadia from Cape Crommyon, on the north coast of Cyprus. He explains that it is the nearest land to the island, while the first city one may find immediately after Anemurium to the east is Νagidus. Plinius,5 in a more accurate estimate of the distance between Anemurium and Cyprus, talks about 50 miles, that is, 350 stadia. Ptolemy6 reports it first in the list of the cities of Ketis–a region extending to the west as far as the coast of Anemurium and to the east as far as the mouth of River Calycandus, on Cape Zephyrus. The city was named after the namesake cape. The etymology of the name is connected with the strong winds blowing in the area because of its geomorphology.7 Pseudo-Scylax reports the geographical position and the city under the same name of Anemurium, while Titus Libius attributes the name Anemurium only to the cape.8 In the above ancient writers as well as on inscriptions and coins from the Roman and Early Byzantine period, the city is reported under the name Anemurium, Anemorion, Anemurin or Anemone.9 From the 12th century on, it has been reported as Astalimure, Stallimuri, Stallimuro and as Anamur or Anamor.10 Anemurium was probably founded in the 4th century, according to the most ancient written information about the existence of the city: ‘Anemurium cape and city’.11 2. Historical Background Anemurium was founded by Greeks as a port subjected to the administration of Nagidus. Apart from the first reference from the 4th century BC, there is no more proof about the date of foundation. The earliest material evidence is two coins of Demetrius Poliorcetes (294-288 BC) dating from the early 3rd century BC.12 The history of the city in the Hellenistic period is complicated. In the late 4th century BC the city belonged to the coastal possessions of Ptolemy I. The domination of Ptolemy on the south coast of Cilicia ended in 197 BC, when, according to Hieronymus, Antioch III captured several cities, among which was Anemurium.13 In the 1st century BC the city was briefly directly under Rome as a small town of Cilicia Trachea.14 After the middle of the same century, western Cilicia (including Anemurium) was incorporated into the kingdom of Cappadocia, controlled by Rome and ruled by Archelaus II.15 It is not clear when Archelaus lost western Cilicia. In the first half of the 1st century AD Anemurium and the entire region of Seleuceia minted coins of Emperor Tiberius. It seems that the city came shortly under Rome again, although the latter was not particularly interested in the city.16 In 38 AD Caligula gave Cilicia Trachea and part of Lycaonia to the subjected ruler Antiochus IV of Commagene. As a result, Anemurium came under the administration of the semi-autonomous state of Commagene, between the Roman Empire and the Parthian Kingdom. Anemurium started to prosper in the years of Antioch IV. In the years of Pax Romana it was a thriving port in the eastern Mediterranean. It was the first city that minted local coins and replaced Nagidus as the regional centre, thus gaining control over the coastal plain.17 During the Hellenistic and the Early Roman period Anemurium, thanks to its position, was often raided by pirates, while it was also invaded by neighbouring mountainous tribes. One such tribe, from the region of Ketis, besieged the city in 51-52 AD.18 In the next two centuries Anemurium thrived and prospered. In 72 AD Emperor Vespasian dethroned Antioch IV and the city came under the Roman Empire again, subjected to the administration of Cilicia. The Middle Imperial period (2nd-3rd c. AD) is the heyday of Anemurium, according to remains, small archaeological findings and a large number of inscriptions and local coins. The city stopped thriving in 260 AD, when a large part of Cilicia Trachea was occupied by the Persians, following the victory of the Sāsānian king Sapor I over Emperor Valerian.19 When Diocletian reorganised the imperial provinces, Anemurium was incorporated into the province of Isauria, whose centre was Seleuceia.20 Around 382 AD the first legion, the Armenian legion (Legio I Armeniaca), which was under the ruler of Isauria Matronianus, built the sea walls and strengthened the fortification of the western and northern side. A military guard of this legion remained in the city for at least 30 years.21 From the 4th century on, the city came gradually to the Early Christian period, as indicated by written evidence about the existence of a bishopric and by the rich remains of Christian churches.22 3. Economy The main source of Anemurium’s prosperity was the commercial port, which made the city a station along the road system as well.23 The main road artery running from Lycaonia and the mountainous region of Taurus to the sea ended in the city after crossing Iconium, Laranda, Germanikopolis and Eirinopolis. This road artery dates from Roman times. There were other routes running directly from Lycaonia to the coast of Anemurium, Kelenderis and Seleuceia. The roadway that came from Laranda, crossed Claudioupolis and reached the cape before it ended in Seleuceia, was even older. It seems that Hierocles identifies the cities in his list while following this ancient route (from Laranda to Seleuceia via Claudioupolis).24 The coastal road artery connected the cities along the coast and the fertile plains of Cilicia with those of Pamphylia. The road came from Adana and Seleuceia and, after crossing Anemurium, it reached Side and Perge.25 Anemurium had immediate access to and from Cyprus and, thus, the Syrian coast. Communication with the eastern Mediterranean was, except for a source of revenue, the major reason why the city survived after the periods of decline. There is no information about exported local production. Local coinage starts in Anemurium in the 1st century AD, in the years of Antioch IV of Commagene (38-72 AD). The coins bear the image of Antioch on the and Artemis and the inscription ‘ΑΝΕΜΟΥΡΙΩΝ’ on the reverse. Other coins bear Ιotape on the back or on the front side, while on the back they represent Apollo. Local coinage was continued during the Imperial years until Valerian (3rd c. AD).26 The back side of the imperial coins depicted Artemis, Dionysus holding a kantharos, Perseus with a lyre and a gorgoneion as well as a female figure –the personification of the city. The inhabitants in Roman times enjoyed a comfortable public and private life in Anemurium, as evidenced by public buildings and mainly the number of found in the city as well as mosaic floors in some private houses. The population of the city probably amounted to 4000 or 5000 in its heyday. 4. Religious and Social Life There is little information about the local pre-Christian religion in Anemurium, since there is little archaeological evidence and few references to written sources. The widely spread cult of Asclepius is proven by an inscription from a public building referring to the god-physician.27 The back sides of the coins are also an additional source of information, mainly representing Apollo with Artemis, Athena and Dionysus. The spread of Christianity started in the early apostolic years and, according to tradition, is attributed to Apostle Barnabas.28 Churches started to build in the late 4th century, while already from the 5th century Anemurium had its own bishopric. 5. Topographical Organisation of the Ancient City The settlement of Anemurium extended from south to north on a narrow strip of limestone land in the northeastern part of the namesake cape. The city was divided into two parts – the acropolis overhanging to the south and the lower city extending to the north, following the gentle descent of the land. The area it covered had a maximum width of 400 m and a maximum length of 1700 m in its heyday.29 The acropolis had its own fortification. The wall, fortified with towers, protected the northern and the eastern side, which were easy to access. The steep cliff was 150 m high forming a natural protection from west and south. The settlement was demarcated by the acropolis on the south and the rocky coast on the east. The route of the aqueduct formed the western border. The northern-northwestern borders were not accurately defined because of poor maintenance of the wall separating the settlement from the Necropolis.30 The Hellenistic residential core covered a limited area, which must not have extended significantly until the Early Roman period. The only remains from the pre-Roman period come from the acropolis. A tower-like structure dating from the Late Hellenistic period and used as a watchtower was found on the rocky slope.31 The first core of the Roman city in the 1st century AD extended 435 m to the north. It reached the watchtower to the east, while there was possibly an imperfect fortification enclosure naturally protecting the settlement on the side of the sea. On the northern side of the city there was a wall 8 m high, equipped with towers following the gentle descent of the land. Around 51-52 AD, while the city was being besieged by the people of Ketis, the first serious defensive wall protecting the vulnerable northern-northwestern side of the settlement was made.32 In the city’s heyday (2nd and 3rd c. AD) there was rapid building development resulting in the expansion of the settlement. The grid plan of the city is modelled on Roman cities. The settlement’s centre was the area extending to the western outskirts of the city and directed east and north. However, the blocks of the city plan are irregularly arranged, while there are hardly any main streets. This is due to the unusual morphology of the land as well as to fast development in the Middle Imperial period. Traces of a colonnaded street directed north-south may be seen only in the eastern part to the coast (numerous fragments of large monolithic columns).33 After 382 AD, when the Armenian legion restored and widened the fortification, the walls were strengthened with towers and the city area increased by 6.5 hectares to the north, thus reaching its maximum size. The city was provided with water through irrigation works carrying water from the plain to the east. Two built water pipes-aqueducts have been traced. The first and earliest reached the eastern part of the city. The subsequent aqueduct was a more reinforced structure (3rd c. AD)reaching the lower western parts of the city and, as a result, serving their needs. The western aqueduct has been preserved in good condition.34 5.1. Public Buildings The preserved public buildings date from the Middle Imperial and the Early Byzantine period. Among the buildings of the Roman period are the theatre, the odeum, the Roman basilica and the complex of thermae. Most buildings as well as the burial monuments of the Necropolis are adorned with wall paintings and mosaic floors representing geometric and floral motifs.35 The theatre dates from the 2nd century AD. It is situated on the western outskirts of the city, to the north of the aqueduct. Within a short distance to the southeast, excavations have revealed the dating from the 3rd century AD and used as a . It had a semicircular , with a diameter 31 m long, 17 rows of seats and a capacity of 800-900 spectators. The overall width of the odeum is 20 m. The orchestra floor was covered with mosaic, as evidenced by fragments found there. The had a wooden floor and a plain, one-story facade with a central gate and two side gates. The underground vaulted passage, which runs along the perimeter in the interior of the auditorium and is divided into three aisles, is unique. It was a particularly luxurious construction decorated with wall paintings and mosaic floors. Another building of unconfirmed use was excavated to the north of the odeum and is probably related to it. The main part of the complex includes a rectangular building directed north-south. It is built in the architectural style of the Roman with a semicircular niche and a large exedra on the northern side. An inscription referring to Asclepius was found here. There were several baths, which made Anemurium the bath spa of the region. Three Roman thermae were excavated, while lesser complexes date from Early Christian times. The largest building, the central thermae, dates from the first half of the 3rd century. It is to the NE of the odeum and water must have been provided by the western aqueduct. The complex covered the area of a building block with a total length of 100 m, directed east-west. The main chambers (caldarium, tepidarium and frigidarium) were in the western half of the building. The eastern part was occupied by the , which was the largest room of the thermae (36.50 × 25.30 m). The main entrance opened on its eastern side. Because of low altitude (-8 m), access was through a wide staircase with 17 steps. Both the palaestra and the rest of the rooms were covered with mosaic floors with a total area of about 900 sq. m. On the eastern side of the palaestra’s mosaic floor there is an inscription welcoming the bathers and wishing them to have a pleasant bath. Likewise, another inscription on the floor of the western exit farewells the visitors hoping they had a pleasant bath. In the late 4th and the mid-5th century the building block of the central thermae was transformed into a block of workshops which included two small baths.36 A second bathing complex, smaller and newer than the central baths, is situated to the south of the theatre and to the east of the western aqueduct. It has been preserved in very good condition. Access was from the south through a staircase with 30 steps, while the internal spaces were here covered with mosaic floors as well. The third bath is outside the city centre, to the northeast, and dates from Late Roman times. The mosaic floor in the best preserved room of the apodyterium dates from the 5th century.37 The Agora of the city lies between the big public buildings and the Late Roman bath. No traces of ancient temples have been excavated either in the city or in the acropolis. This is possibly due to the large-scale building activities in the city in the Byzantine period. The buildings were mainly made of local limestone. Unlike the concurrent Roman cities, Anemurium used marble sparingly, mainly in decorations and marble inlays. Marble must have been imported in large quantities after the 4th century and was used in building Christian churches.38 5.2. The Settlement Private houses have been preserved in worse condition than public buildings and, as indicated by archaeological evidence, were used until the 7th century AD. Remains of houses have been excavated in the northern part of the city. The southwestern section of the city, in the area of the aqueduct, is the best preserved part of Anemurium. Building blocks are directed east-west. The houses had vaulted roofs, made from irregularly cut stones modelled on the houses of eastern Pamphylia. They had two or three main rectangular rooms with narrow arched openings serving as windows. The small rectangular or L-shaped yards were surrounded by high enclosures. The houses often had two floors. The upper floor was used for living and the ground floor as a stable or a warehouse.39 5.3. The Necropolis The prosperity and artistic development of the city are uniquely reflected in the Necropolis situated in the northwestern part of the city. It is the best preserved cemetery of the Roman Asia Minor, uninterruptedly used from the 1st to the 4th century AD. Three hundred and fifty tombs in various architectural and decorative styles have been excavated in the area.40 The earliest burial buildings of the 1st century AD accommodated three inhumations. They are plain, free, vaulted structures from ashlar blocks, built on a stepped podium. Rich family tombs were more complex. Apart from the main death chamber, they also had an anteroom, auxiliary spaces and a yard defined by an enclosure. The subsequent burial monuments of the 3rd century AD are even more complex and sometimes they have two floors. On the walls there are small niches and, apart from the main burial chamber, the auxiliary chambers and the yard had a room intended for funerary rituals. Most of them were adorned with mosaic floors and wall paintings, whose dominant representations were geometric motifs, , garlands, bunches of grapes and putti. The wall painting on the vaulted roof at the entrance of a tomb, where the personifications of the seasons are depicted, is a fine example of technique and content. |
1. The ancient position, together with the positions of other towns of the region, was located by Elisabeth Rosenbaum, following excavation research carried out in the 1960s. Extensive excavations works were carried out in the 1970s by James Russel. See: Russel, J., ‘Anemurium – Eine römische Kleinstadt in Kleinasien’ Antike Welt 7, Heft 4 (1976), pp. 3-4. 2. Hirschfeld, G., ‘Anemurion’, RE I 2, l. 2182. 3. Hild, F. – Hellenkemper, H., ‘Anemurion’ (ΤΙΒ 5.1, Wien 1990), p. 187. 4. Strabo, ΧΙV 5.3 ( C 669). 5. Plinius, HN V 93 and 130. 6. Ptolemy, Geogr. V 8, 3. 7. Russel, J., ‘Anemurium – Eine römische Kleinstadt in Kleinasien’ Antike Welt 7, Heft 4 (1976), p. 4; The mosaic inscriptions of Anemurium (Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 1987) of the same writer, p. 15. 8. Liv. XXXIII 20,4; Pseudo-Scylax, Periplous 102. 9. About the inscriptions, see: Russel, J., The mosaic inscriptions of Anemurium (Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 1987) and the relative bibliography of the same writer: ‘Anemurium – Eine römische Kleinstadt in Kleinasien’ Antike Welt 7, Heft 4 (1976) , p. 20, d. About the names of the cities, according to ancient sources, see Ramsay, M.W., The historical Geography of Asia Minor (London 1890), p. 362. The minutes of the council of Chalcedon (451 AD) report it as Anemourium, while the letter of the bishops of Isauria to Emperor Leo I (458 AD) as Anemorium, see Acta Conciliorum Oecumenicorum (ΑCO) II 1, 2 [348] Nr. 370 and II 5 S. 50. In the 6th century Anemurium is reported in the tables of Hierocles, see Hierocles, 708,4. About ‘Anemorion’ and ‘Anemone’, see Darrouzes, J., Notitiae, 7.514, 10.734, 13.496. As Anemorion it is evidenced in 692 AD, see MANSI XI 1001 D. 10. Hild, F. – Hellenkemper, H., ‘Anemurion’ (ΤΙΒ 5.1, Wien 1990), p. 188. During the visit of the king of France, Philip II, in the 12th century, Anemurium is reported as ‘Sta(le)mere’: Gesta Ricardi I. II, 194. Earlier Ramsay, M.W., The historical Geography of Asia Minor (London 1890), p. 362, had wrongly believed that Anemurium was identified with the city ‘Sykai’ reported by the ecumenical councils of 787 and 879. 11. Pseudo-Scylax, Periplous 102. 12. Russel, J., The mosaic inscriptions of Anemurium (Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 1987), p. 15. 13. Hieronymus, FGrH 260 F43. 14. Hild, F. – Hellenkemper, H., ‘Anemurion’ (ΤΙΒ 5.1, Wien 1990), pp. 187-188; Russel, J., The mosaic inscriptions of Anemurium (Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 1987), pp. 15-16. 15. Strabo, ΧΙΙ 1.4 (C 535) and ΧΙΙ 2.11 (C 540). According to Strabo, the territory of this kingdom had been defined by the Romans as the ‘eleventh generalship’. 16. Ramsay, M.W., The historical Geography of Asia Minor (London 1890), p. 372. 17. Hild, F. – Hellenkemper, H., ‘Anemurion’ (ΤΙΒ 5.1, Wien 1990), p. 188; Russel, J., The mosaic inscriptions of Anemurium (Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 1987), pp. 15-16. 18. Tacitus, Chron. XII 55. 19. Maricq, Res gestae 321. 20. Hierocles, 708, 4; Hild, F. – Hellenkemper, H., ‘Anemurion’ (ΤΙΒ 5.1, Wien 1990), p. 188. 21. Russel, J., The mosaic inscriptions of Anemurium (Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 1987), p. 19. 22. Russel, J., ‘Anemurium – Eine römische Kleinstadt in Kleinasien’ Antike Welt 7, Heft 4 (1976), p. 16. 23. Hild, F. – Hellenkemper, H., ‘Anemurion’ (ΤΙΒ 5.1, Wien 1990), p. 188. 24. Hierocles, 708, 4. The tables of Hierocles were later used by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus for the formation of the themes. 25. About the road system and the sea route, see Ramsay, M.W., The historical Geography of Asia Minor (London 1890), pp. 350, 358 and 361. In addition, Hild, F. – Hellenkemper, H., ‘Anemurion’ (ΤΙΒ 5.1, Wien 1990), p. 188. 26. Hirschfeld, G., ‘Anemurion’, RE I2, l. 2182; Ramsay, M.W., The historical Geography of Asia Minor (London 1890), p. 372; Russel, J., ‘Anemurium – Eine römische Kleinstadt in Kleinasien’ Antike Welt 7, Heft 4 (1976), p. 4. 27. Russel, J., ‘Anemurium – Eine römische Kleinstadt in Kleinasien’ Antike Welt 7, Heft 4 (1976), p. 11. 28. Acta Barnabae 12 -14. Lipsius, Die apokryphen Apostelgeschichten und Apostellegenden III (Leipzig 1907), pp. 282-283 and 296-297. 29. Hild, F. – Hellenkemper, H., ‘Anemurion’ (ΤΙΒ 5.1, 1990), pp. 188-189. 30. Russel, J., ‘Anemurium – Eine römische Kleinstadt in Kleinasien’ Antike Welt 7, Heft 4 (1976), p. 5; The mosaic inscriptions of Anemurium (Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 1987) of the same writer, p. 17. 31. Hild, F. – Hellenkemper, H., ‘Anemurion’ (ΤΙΒ 5.1, 1990), p. 189; Russel, J., The mosaic inscriptions of Anemurium (Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 1987), p. 16. 32. Russel, J., The mosaic inscriptions of Anemurium (Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 1987), p. 17. 33. Russel, J., ‘Anemurium – Eine römische Kleinstadt in Kleinasien’ Antike Welt 7, Heft 4 (1976), p. 8. 34. Hild, F. – Hellenkemper, H., ‘Anemurion’ (ΤΙΒ 5.1, Wien 1990), p. 189. Russel, J., The mosaic inscriptions of Anemurium (Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 1987), p. 18. 35. Generally about the buildings of Anemurium, see Russel, J., ‘Anemurium – Eine römische Kleinstadt in Kleinasien’ Antike Welt 7, Heft 4 (1976), pp. 6-20. 36. Hild, F. – Hellenkemper, H., ‘Anemurion’ (ΤΙΒ 5.1, Wien 1990), p. 188. 37. About the thermae buildings, see Russel, J., ‘Anemurium – Eine römische Kleinstadt in Kleinasien’ Antike Welt 7, Heft 4 (1976), pp. 16-18. About mosaic inscriptions, see Russel, J., The mosaic inscriptions of Anemurium (Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 1987). In particular, about the palaestra, see Russel, J., ‘Mosaic Inscriptions from Palestra at Anemurium’ AnSt 24 (1974), from p. 95 onward. 38. Russel, J., ‘Anemurium – Eine römische Kleinstadt in Kleinasien’, Antike Welt 7, Heft 4 (1976), p. 8; Hild, F. – Hellenkemper, H., ‘Anemurion’ (ΤΙΒ 5.1, Wien 1990), p. 189. 39. Hild, F. – Hellenkemper, H., ‘Anemurion’ (ΤΙΒ 5.1, Wien 1990), p. 189. 40. See Rosenbaum-Alföldi, E., Anamur Nekropolü. The Nekropolis of Anemurium (TTKY Seri VI, 12, Ankara 1971). |